

Glass 

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EACH PAMPHLET IS ONE UNIT IN A COMPLETE LIBRARY OF MACHINE DE¬ 
SIGN AND SHOP PRACTICE REVISED AND REPUBLISHED FROM MACHINERY 







No. 59 


A Dollar's Worth of Condensed Information on 

Machines,Tools and 
Methods of Automobile 
Manufacture 

Price 25 Cents 

CONTENTS 

Organization and Equipment of an Automobile Factory, by 
C. B. Owen. 

Machines and Tools for Automobile Manufacture, by 
C. B. Owen. 

System for the Rapid Assembly of Motor Cars, by 
Harold Whiting Slauson. 

Treatment of Gears for Automobiles; by Harold Whiting 
Slauson . 

Copyright 1910, The Industrial Press, Publishers of MACHINERY, 

49-55 Lafayette Street, New York City 







































MACHINERY’S REFERENCE SERIES 

This treatise is one unit in a comprehensive Series of Reference books, 
originated by Machinery, and including an indefinite number of compact units, 
each covering one subject thoroughly. The whole series comprises a complete 
working library of mechanical literature in which the Mechanical Engineer, 
the Master Mechanic, the Designer, the Machinist and Tool-maker will find 
the special information he wishes to secure, selected, carefully revised and 
condensed for him. The books are sold singly or in complete sets, as may be 
desired. The price of each book is 25 cents, and it is possible to secure them 
on even more favorable terms under special offers issued by Machinery’s cir¬ 
culation department and sent to any one on request. 

The .success of the Reference Series was instantaneous and copies are now 
widely distributed in machine shops and metal working plants everywhere. 

CONTENTS OF REFERENCE BOOKS 

No. 1. Worm Gearing. —Calculating Dimensions for Worm Gearing; Hobs 
for Worm-Gears; Location of Pitch Circle; Self-Locking Worm Gearing; etc. 

No. 2. Drafting-Room Practice. —Drafting-Room System; Tracing, Letter¬ 
ing and Mounting; Card Index Systems. 

No. 3. Drill Jigs. —Elementary Principles of Drill Jigs; Drilling Jig 
Plates; Examples of Drill Jigs; Jig Bushings; Using Jigs to Best Advantage. 

No. 4. Milling Fixtures. —Elementary Principles of Milling Fixtures; Col¬ 
lection of Examples of Milling Fixture Design, from practice. 

No. 5. First Principles of Theoretical Mechanics. 

No. 6. Punch and Die Work. —Principles of Punch and Die Work; Sug¬ 
gestions for the Making and Use of Dies; Examples of Die and Punch Design. 

No. 7. Lathe and Planer Tools— Cutting Tools for Planer and Lathe; 
Boring Tools; Shape of Standard Shop Tools; Forming Tools. 

No. 8. Working Drawings and Drafting-Room Kinks. 

No. 9. Designing and Cutting Cams. —Drafting of Cams; Cam Curves; 
Cam Design and Cam Cutting; Suggestions in Cam Making. 

No. 10. Examples of Machine Shop Practice. —Cutting Bevel Gears with 
Rotary Cutters; Making a Worm-Gear; Spindle Construction. 

No. 11. Bearings. —Design of Bearings; Causes of Hot Bearings; Alloys 
for Bearings; Friction and Lubrication; Friction of* Roller Bearings. 

No. 12. Mathematics of Machine Design. —Compiled with special reference 
to shafting and efficiency of hoisting machinery. 

No. 13. Blanking Dies. —Making Blanking Dies; Blanking and Piercing 
Dies; Construction of Split Dies; Novel Ideas in Die Making. 

No. 14. Details of Machine Tool Design.— Cone Pulleys and Belts; 
Strength of Countershafts; Tumbler Gear Design; Faults of Iron Castings. 

No. 15. Spur Gearing. —First Principles of Gearing; Formulas for Spur 
Gearing; Design and Calculation of Gear Wheels; Strength of Gear Teeth. 

No. 1G. Machine Tool Drives. —Speeds and Feeds of Machine Tools; 
Geared or Single Pulley Drives; Drives for High Speed Cutting Tools. 

No. 17. Strength of Cylinders. —Formulas, Charts, and Diagrams. 

No. 18. Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist. —Tapers; Change Gears: 
Cutting Speeds; Feeds; Indexing; Gearing for Cutting Spirals; Angles. 

No. 19. Use of Formulas in Mechanics. —With numerous applications. 

No. 20. Spiral Gearing. Calculating Spiral Gears; Rules, Formulas, and 
Diagrams foi Designing Spiral Gears; Efficiency of Spiral Gearing, etc. 

No. 21. Measuring Tools. —History and Development of Standard Meas¬ 
urements; Special Calipers; Compasses; Micrometer Tools; Protractors, etc. 

See inside back cover for additional titles 


MACHINERY'S 
REFERENCE SERIES 


EACH NUMBER IS ONE UNIT IN A COMPLETE 
LIBRARY OF MACHINE DESIGN AND SHOP 
PRACTICE REVISED AND REPUB¬ 
LISHED FROM MACHINERY 


NUMBER 59 

MACHINES, TOOLS AND 
METHODS OF AUTOMOBILE 
MANUFACTURE 


CONTENTS 


Organization, and Equipment of an Automobile Factory, by 

C. B. Owen - - - - - 3 

Machines and Tools for Automobile Manufacture, by 

C. B. Owen - - - - - - 15 

System for the Rapid Assembly of Motor Cars, by 

Harold Whiting Slauson - - - - - 35 

Treatment of Gears for Automobiles, by Harold Whiting 

Slauson.4 1 


Copyright, 1910, The Industrial Press, Publishers of Machinery 
49-55 Lafayette Street, New York City 







(0CU261225 


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CHAPTER I 


ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT OF AN 
AUTOMOBILE FACTORY* 

The Leland, Fauleoner & Norton Co., of Detroit, Mich., was formed 
in 1890 for the purpose of building machine tools and special machin¬ 
ery. Special milling machines, a lathe center grinder, a wet tool 
grinder, and some special machinery were built. Later the manufac¬ 
ture of wood trimmers for pattern shop use was undertaken; and next, 
during the development period of the bicycle industry, a line of 
machinery for making hardened and ground bicycle gears was de¬ 
veloped. As the bicycle business declined, the company began build¬ 
ing gas engines for motor boats, which were then rapidly rising in 
popularity. The natural step from the marine to the automobile type 
of gas engine was made in 1901 to 1902, when the motor now used in 
the Cadillac car was produced. In 1905 the company was united with 
the automobile firm building the Cadillac car to form the present 
Cadillac Motor Car Co. From 1902 until March. 1909, about 21,000 
cars had been turned out, 17,000 of which were single cylinder 10 
H. P. machines, and the rest four cylinder cars, rated at 30 H. P. 

The Plant and Its Organization 

The main or Cadillac plant has a double siding connected with the 
Belt Line Railroad, thus giving ample shipping facilities. The factory 
buildings are of brick and reinforced concrete construction, lighted 
by large windows. Heat is supplied by a live steam system. The 
boiler-room contains three water tube boilers, with room for another 
if it is needed. Light and power are furnished by electric current sup¬ 
plied by the Detroit Edison Co. Electric driving is used throughout 
the plant, with motors connected with each line shaft, and occasional 
installations with direct connected tools. A large compressor fur¬ 
nishes air at 125 pounds pressure for the pneumatic hammers in the 
frame department, and for use in the various assembling departments, 
for cleaning parts, running air drills, etc. Five large elevators in 
fire-proofed brick shafts convey materials and parts between the vari¬ 
ous floors. An automatic sprinkler system is installed, supplied by 
four tanks on the roof. These tanks are filled by a large fire pump 
which operates whenever the level of water in the tanks is reduced. 
This same system supplies water for lavatory and wash-room use. 
There are two large wash-rooms, each having 600 bowls and 1,000 
lockers. 

The old Leland & Fauleoner plant comprises a foundry building of 
brick, steel and glass, supplied with cupolas and a hydraulic jib crane; 
a pattern shop and pattern storage building; a brass foundry build- 

* Machinery, March, 1909. 



4 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

mg; a brick building for the case-hardening department; and a large 
three story brick building for the power plant and the sheet metal 
and brass working departments. The building is lighted by both gas 
and electricity, has a hotair heating system, and is provided with 
large wash-rooms on each floor. 

The organization of the plant is divided into the following depart¬ 
ments: First, the general manager; second, the secretary; third, 
the sales department; fourth, the advertising department; fifth, the 
purchasing department; sixth, the time-keeping and cost-keeping de¬ 
partment; seventh, the superintendent and his assistants; eighth, the 
engineering and designing departments, which produce the new models, 
tools and fixtures, and in conjunction with the experimental depart¬ 
ment, test the new cars before placing them on the market; ninth, the 
foremen and their assistants in the forty-four manufacturing depart¬ 
ments; and six other special departments, some of which will be men¬ 
tioned later. While the reader will be most interested in the depart¬ 
ments devoted strictly to manufacturing, the work of the engineering 
and purchasing departments is worthy of some notice. 

The designing-room is separate from the general drawing room and 
is used by the chief engineer and two designers. Suggestions for new 
designs and improvements in old ones may be made by any one on 
suitable blanks. They are all considered and passed upon by a 
mechanical committee, consisting of the general Manager, the chief 
engineer, and the two designers. When approved, such changes are 
made immediately on the tracings, and new blue-prints are made and 
sent to the departments concerned in producing those parts. This 
keeps the blue-prints up-to-date, and avoids loss in the carrying 
through of parts of obsolete design. A well-organized experimental 
department is provided, having the necessary apparatus for testing 
new designs. The work of the general drawing room includes the 
detailing of new designs, and the drafting work on the necessary 
tools, gages, jigs and fixtures needed to produce new parts or models. 
Filing cabinets are provided for current drawings, as well as for those 
which are obsolete, of which a full record is kept. 

The Purchasing- Department, the Stock-rooms ancl 
the Gasoline Storag-e 

The purchasing agent has final authority on all matters concerning 
the actual buying of material used in the cars, and the care of this 
material until it goes to the machine or assembling departments. Pur¬ 
chasing orders are made out in quadruplicate. One copy goes to the 
seller, one to the receiving office, one to the bookkeeping department, 
and one to the file in the purchasing office. Small commercial parts, 
such as nuts, rivets, etc., are stored in bins in the general stock-room, 
which also receives the finished and inspected parts turned out by the 
manufacturing departments. The stock-room record is kept on a card 
index system, and material is delivered by the stock-keeper only on 
presentation of a requisition from the foreman of the department 
where it is to be used. Bulky parts and materials are kept in a large 


ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT 


warehouse, which is also under the care of the purchasing department. 
A separate stock-room is required for repair parts. These are kept in 
stock for all models, clear back to the first one placed on the market, 
and they are replaced as fast as sold out. 

The gasoline used in testing the cars is also considered as stock, and 
a very carefully planned storage system is provided for it. Four cylin¬ 
drical tanks of 15,000 gallons capacity each are buried in concrete near 
the siding, with the tops of the tanks about five feet below the street 
level. They are connected at top and bottom by separate cross piping. 
The system of storage is such that these tanks are always full of water 
or gasoline, or both, so that air is always excluded, making explosion 
impossible. The upper cross pipe permits the free passage of gasoline 
between the tanks, while the lower pipe performs the same function 
for the water. A suitable arrangement of automatic valves lets in 
water as fast as gasoline is removed, or permits the escape of water 
as gasoline is introduced. 

A notable safety provision in the outlet piping for the water posi¬ 
tively prevents the escape of gasoline into the sewer. The outlet pipe 
is formed into a long U-bend, which extends vertically to a depth of 
70 feet, inside of an 18-inch casing. From this it returns and dis¬ 
charges through a trap into the sewer. The depth of this bend is such 
that the column of water on the outlet side will balance a column of 
gasoline having a height corresponding to the head obtainable from a 
tank car on a grade 5 feet higher than the present siding. The water 
thus furnishes a permanent seal against the discharge of gasoline. 

The distribution of the gasoline is also carefully safe-guarded. It 
is supplied to the various testing rooms and to the factory garage 
through piping from the storage system. It is retailed by Bowser 
registering pumps which are kept locked when not in use. As a 
further safeguard, all the piping is enclosed in concrete, and the whole 
system is so arranged that it may be flooded with water to a depth of 
five feet in case of fire in any building which might later be built 
over it. 

Tool and Tool Supply Departments 

The tool department is located on the top floor and at the north side 
of the building, where the best light is obtainable. It is devoted to 
the manufacture of the jigs and fixtures and many of the gages em¬ 
ployed in the factory. The equipment consists largely of Reed and 
Hendey & Norton lathes, Hendey shapers, Brown & Sharpe milling 
machines, and Brown & Sharpe universal and surface grinders. The 
high degree of interchangeability required in the product demands 
a high standard of workmanship in this department. At the time 
Fig. 1 was taken, some manufacturing was being done here. A wire 
•enclosure at the right contains the tool inspecting department. The 
tool steel stock and tool grinding rooms are at the further end of the 
picture. 

The tool supply department is closely allied with the tool-room. Its 
work is principally that of -caring for, sharpening and recording the 
various jigs, fixtures and cutting tools. All these tools are looked 



6 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

out for by a card index system, which shows where they are used, 
and what repairs, if any, have been necessary. This department 
orders all the small commercial tools, and keeps a debit account with 
each branch tool-room for the supplies furnished it, giving credit for 
all tools worn out in legitimate use or broken in unavoidable acci¬ 
dents. A perpetual inventory is thus kept of all the special and com¬ 
mercial tools kept on hand. A card index inventory of the machine 
tools is kept in the purchasing department. 

Forge, Foundry and Sheet Metal Departments 

It will not be possible to more than briefly mention that part of 
the equipment of the forty-four manufacturing departments which is 
concerned with the actual work on the parts. The blacksmith shop 
is small, owing to the extensive use of drop forgings, but it is finely 



Fig. 1. A Partial View of the Tool-making Department 


fitted up with Buffalo down-draft forges, a tool forge with a coke 
magazine, gas furnaces, water jacketed dipping tanks, and an electric 
welding machine. The bulk of the work consists of tool dressing, 
and the making of forgings for jigs and fixtures and for special car 
equipment. The case-hardening department has ten large Frankfort 
gas furnaces equipped with pyrometers, connected by a switch board 
with a galvanometer graduated to degrees Fahrenheit. Oil and water 
dipping tanks with steam and cooling water jackets are provided. 
These are piped to a steam pump to give positive circulation. Square 
and oblong pots are used for small machine parts, while round pots 
with central holes, to insure uniform heat, are used for the large 
rear axle bevel gear. 

The iron foundry is provided with a large and a small cupola. The 
latter is used largely for heats of a special nature. The most ap¬ 
proved methods for testing and chemical analysis are employed to 
keep track of the output. This is necessitated by the fact that the 
foundry furnishes castings for other motor car builders besides the 
















ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT 7 

Cadillac Company. The brass foundry furnishes the necessary cast¬ 
ings for the bronze bushings, carburetor and lubricator parts, small 
valves and fittings, etc. These are finished in the brass machine shop, 
which is equipped with forty Warner & Swasey screw machines, be¬ 
sides several Fox lathes, drill presses, milling machines and several 
special lathes. All the lubricators, gasoline valves, carburetors and 
bearings used are produced here. 

In the sheet metal department are made the vertical tubular radia¬ 
tors, gasoline tanks, dashes, fenders, etc., as well as small punchings, 
such as washers, clips, etc. The press-room has a complete equipment, 
ranging from foot presses up to 20-ton power presses, capable of cut¬ 
ting and forming parts up to 36 by 48 indies. Gas furnaces are used 
for heating the soldering irons and work when assembling the radia¬ 
tors. The radiators and tanks are tested by compressed air, while 



Pig-. 2. The Chassis Drilling and Milling Departments 


submerged in water. The frame department is equipped with gas fur¬ 
naces and pneumatic hammers for riveting and heading. 

Equipment of the Machine Departments 

For convenience in handling the work, all the engine parts are 
drilled and milled in two separate departments in one large room, 
while the similar operations on the chassis parts are performed in an¬ 
other room, which is shown in part in Fig. 2. The equipment of this 
department includes a large number of Cincinnati drill presses, Cin¬ 
cinnati and Brown & Sharpe milling machines, and a Beaman & 
Smith cylinder boring machine, arranged for handling transmission 
cases and axle housings. The engraving shows the large use of multi¬ 
ple spindle drills, quick change drill sockets and jigs. 

The equipment of the motor drilling department is somewhat similar, 
ranging from a sensitive bench drill to a 24-spindle motor-driven Baush 
machine. This is used in drilling the 24 holes for studs, cap screws, 
etc., in the lower half of the motor frame. These holes are all drilled 











8 


No. 39—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


at one time, and have to accurately match similar holes in the upper 
half. This, it will be seen, requires a high grade of Workmanship. 
The milling department for motor parts employs several Whitney 
hand millers, Brown & Sharpe horizontal millers of various sizes, sev¬ 
eral vertical machines of the same make, and six heavy motor-driven 
Cincinnati machines. There are also to be found here two milling ma¬ 
chines built by Leland & Faulconer, which are unusual in that the 
table has longitudinal and cross feeds only, the vertical adjustment 
being applied to the spindle. High-speed steel inserted tooth cutters 
are in general use. 

The screw machine department is one of the largest in the factory, 
•occupying a floor space of 80 by 200 feet, and containing 62 machines, 
exclusive of the tool grinders. Brown & Sharpe, National, Acme, Dav¬ 
enport and Cleveland machines are used for making cap screws, nuts, 
studs and other parts up to one inch in diameter. Gridley machines 
are employed for larger work. Jones & Lamson fiat turret lathes are 
used for shafts, spindles and some gear blanks. The Potter & John¬ 
ston automatic machine is employed for much of the chucking work 
in combination with the Gisholt and Steinle machines, which are used 
mostly for machining clutch and gear mounts. A group of Bardons 
& Oliver machines are used on certain engine parts, which have to 
be held in face-plate fixtures and finished largely by hsyid labor. The 
larger Acme machines are direct connected. 

While most of the round parts are finished complete on the screw 
machine, a lathe department is necessary for some work which has to 
be turned on arbors. Fly-wheels and some long axle shafts are also 
finished here. The equipment includes Reed lathes, a Bullard boring 
machine for finishing fly-wheels, and two Beaman & Smith double¬ 
spindle horizontal boring machines for roughing out the cylinders. 
The latter are provided with turntable fixtures, so that two cylinders 
may be set up while two others are being bored. After the cylinders 
are roughed out, they are tested under hydraulic pressure and sent to 
the grinding department. 

The grinding department finishes practically every round part on 
the car except the crank-shaft, which comes finished from a firm mak¬ 
ing a specialty of that work. Heavy Norton and Brown & Sharpe 
grinders are used for finishing long parts. Medium sized Landis and 
Brown & Sharpe grinders take care of work up to 3 inches in diameter 
and 8 inches long. Special Brown & Sharpe and Heald grinders are 
used for finishing the cylinders, which are held exactly as they will 
be on the assembled engine, so that clamping strains are- duplicated. 
The pistons are finished in one of the heavy Norton machines. The 
group of Heald machines is used exclusively on internal work, and 
an equipment of face grinders finishes the washers and flat disks 
used in the cars. The square shafts which carry the sliding members 
of the transmission are ground to size on a group of Brown & Sharpe 
surface machines, fitted with suitable index fixtures. In contrast to 
the heavy Norton grinders with their 24-inch wheels, is a bench grinder 


9 


ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT 

purchased from the Waltham Watch Tool Co., for finishing internal 
ball races. This little machine uses a wheel about the size of a five- 
cent piece, and may be set to grind to a radius of y 8 inch. Careful 
attention is given to providing suitable racks for ground work to avoid 
injury in handling. 

In Pig. 3 is seen a partial view of the gear-cutting department. A 
Gleason bevel gear generating machine is here shown at work cutting 
a rear axle gear. The complete equipment includes thirty standard 
machines, and four others of special design, besides four testing ma¬ 
chines. The list includes fifteen Brown & Sharpe automatic gear cut¬ 
ters, one large Goujd & Eberhardt machine, two Fellows gear shapers 
for internal gears, one Bilgram and three Gleason bevel gear planers, 
two imported French machines for special pinion work, and a Pratt & 
Whitney worm milling machine. One of the testing machines, that 



Fig. 3. A Corner of the Gear-cutting Room 


for bevel gears, is seen at the extreme right of Fig. 3. The testing 
machine for spur gears is provided with a vernier scale for reading 
center distances to thousandths of an inch. 

Inspection and Assembling- Departments 

The inspection department consists of a chief inspector and his fore¬ 
men, and the men under them, who together form a corps of over 
one hundred men. These men inspect commercial parts as they go 
through the receiving department, the output of each manufacturing 
department as it goes to the assembling, the final assembling of the 
parts in the chassis, and the finish of the completed machine on both- 
the mechanism and the body. The inspectors are furnished with all 
necessary appliances for doing this work accurately. Drop forgings 
are examined for visible flaws, and sounded for invisible ones. Springs 
are tested on machines especially built for the purpose. Every ma¬ 
chine department has its inspection bench, provided with the neces¬ 
sary plug and snap gages for the entire range of its output. Microm- 




10 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


eter calipers up to the 6-inch size are in general use. Thread microm¬ 
eters are used in place of ring thread gages wherever possible. For 
testing turned and bored parts for concentricity, Brown & Sharpe 
testing centers and indicators are used. Suitable surface plates, 
V-blocks and height gages are provided. The inspectors in the grind¬ 
ing department are furnished with strong reading glasses for use on 
certain work. These inspectors are outside the jurisdiction of the 
other department-heads, and have full authority to throw out all 
parts and materials not up to the standard. 

The work of assembling is divided between several gangs, each of 
which does it own particular work. One group of assemblers scrapes 
the crank-shaft bearings to fit, and “runs them in” by a belt on the 
fly-wheel. Another assembles the cam-shaft members. Still another 
assembles the piston, its rings, pins, connecting-rod and bearings, 



while the “cylinder gang” assembles the cylinder and cylinder head 
and copper water jacket. The final assembling is then done on stands 
as shown in Fig. 4. This consists merely in bolting the various parts 
together, setting the cam gears (which are marked in a jig), timing 
the valves, adjusting the bearings, and testing the water connections. 
The points of valve opening and closing are marked on the rim of the 
fly-wheel, and a fixed pointer shows the central position. 

The Testing- Department and Its Equipment 

From the assembling room the engines are taken to the testing 
department, where they are placed on iron stands and connected with 
the gasoline and water supplies, and to the electrical connections for 
the ignition, as shown plainly in Fig. 5. The engines are) run at mod¬ 
erate speed until they get down to work, when the speed is gradually 
brought up to the maximum. A brake-horsepower test of each engine 
is made, and those which fail to come up to the requirements are 
returned'to the assembling department for reconstruction. As a check 









11 


ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT 

on this test, stock engines are sent to the experimental department at 
regular intervals, and tested there by connection with a dynamo fitted 
with suitable electrical measuring instruments. After the testing the 
engines go into stock, or to the chassis assembling department. 

All the parts necessary for the completed chassis are brought to this 
assembling department. The order of assembling is as follows: The 
frames are first laid on horses and the mechanism dust shield is put 
on. The springs and axles are next attached, and then the engine and 
transmission gearing are set and lined up. The engine is supported at 
three points, and is connected by a universal sliding joint with the 
transmission gearing, thus permitting “weaving” of the frame without 
danger of disalignment. The universal joint between the transmis¬ 
sion and the differential gearing is practically straight when the car 
is loaded, and runs at a very slight angle when the car is light. The 



Fig. 5. Testing the Four-cylinder Engines 


exhaust pipe and muffler are next connected, and then the controlling 
and brake levers and the pedals. The radiator and water connec¬ 
tions come next, followed by the steering gear. The placing of the 
mahogany dash in position permits the mounting of the electrical 
apparatus; and the bolting on of the gasoline tank and its connec¬ 
tions completes the chassis, except for the wheels and tires. An old 
set of these are put on the car in the assembling department, to be 
used for the road test. The method of assembling is practically the 
same for the single cylinder car. 

Two separate testing departments are provided—one for the single¬ 
cylinder cars, and the other for the four-cylinder cars. The former were 
given road tests for the first two years of their manufacture, until 
all the weak points in the construction had been eliminated. The test¬ 
ing room shown in Fig. 6 was then built, and the cars have since 
been tested here. Fifteen stands are provided. The rear wheels rest 
on a pair of 48-inch pulleys, mounted on a shaft which carries a fan 











12 No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

about 72 inches in diameter by 36 inches wide, projecting through the 
floor in the sheet iron casing shown. In addition to the resistance 
thus offered by the fan, a brake is mounted on the shaft between the 
pulleys, controlled by the hand-wheel on the stand shown projecting 
through the floor at the rear of each machine. By this means it is 
possible to work the engine against any desired resistance, even to 
the extent of stalling it. The chassis are held by padded hooks, fast¬ 
ened by ropes or chains to the brake wheel stands. The blast of air 
produced by each fan is led through a sheet metal conduit and 
directed against the radiator of the engine, thus giving the same cool¬ 
ing effect that would be experienced at corresponding speeds on the 
road on a still day. The speed in miles per hour is read from Schaf¬ 
fer & Budenburg tachometers. 



Fig. 6. The Single-cylinder Chassis Testing Stand, arranged for 
Fan and Brake Resistance 

The four-cylinder testing stands are similar in principle, though 
somewhat differently arranged, as the fans are placed beneath the 
front of the machine, being connected with the driving shafts by 
sprockets and chains. After being run here a sufficient time to make 
sure of their adjustment and running condition, temporary bodies 
are placed on the chassis and each car given a thorough test by reli¬ 
able men on the country roads outside the city. After this has been 
done to the satisfaction of the foreman of the department, the testing 
body is removed and the chassis is washed successively in water and 
gasoline, and dried by an air jet. 

Finishing- 

The painting and finishing of the chassis, bodies and wheels is done 
in separate departments. The bodies receive one coat of rough filler, 
and fifteen more coats of filler color and varnish, before completion. 
A view of the trimming department for the bodies is shown in Fig. 7. 
Fenders, hoods, brackets, etc., are enameled and baked. Fig. 8 shows 












ORGANIZATION AND EQUIPMENT 


13 


some of the pipe frame trucks used to hold these sheet metal parts 
during the baking. 

The chassis, bodies, hoods, fenders, etc., finally go to the large fin¬ 
ishing-room on the ground floor, where the final assembling and test- 



Fig. 7. The Body Trimming Department 

ir.g of the complete car is done. Each complete car is driven out by 
a final inspector to make sure that all adjustments are correct. Be¬ 
fore shipping, a detailed record is made of each car, beginning with 
the motor number, and giving the dates of motor assembling, motor 



Fig. 8. Storage of Enamelled Parts, showing Wheeled Stands 
used in the Baking Ovens 


testing, all the various painting, finishing and shipping dates, together 
with any information of a special kind, such as size and color of body, 
etc. This record has been found of the greatest assistance to the 
repair order department in filling poorly written orders. 



































14 No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

Interchangeability 

In connection with this subject of repair orders, mention should be 
made of the high degree of interchangeability attained by the Cadillac 
Co. This was illustrated by a test made in March, 1908, by a com¬ 
mittee of the Royal Auto Club of England, who selected by lot three 
Cadillac cars of the same 10-horsepower model, disassembled them 
under the eyes of an inspector of their own appointment, placed the 
disassembled parts (721 from each car) in a pile, and mixed them 
up indiscriminately; 81 parts were then taken out and replaced by 81 
repa ; r parts from stock. The cars were thereupon reassembled from this 
mixed pile by the use of wrenches, screw-drivers, etc., but without the 
use of scrapers, files or even emery cloth. Only one part, a cotter pin, 
was injured in reassembling. These three heterogeneously reassem¬ 
bled cars were each given a 500-mile reliability run on the Brooklands 
track, at an average speed of 33 to 34 miles per hour, without develop¬ 
ing the slightest defect. 



CHAPTER II 


MACHINES AND TOOLS FOR AUTOMOBILE 

MANUFACTURE* 

The Cadillac Engine 

Ill order to make clear the manufacturing operations which will be 
referred to in the following, a brief description of the Cadillac engine 
will here be given. The first automobile made by the Cadillac Motor 
Car Co., of Detroit, Mich., in 1902, was a runabout containing a 10 



Fig. 9. Section through Cylinder showing the Water Jacket Construction 



H. P., single cylinder, four cycle, horizontal engine, of 5-incli bore 
by 5-inch stroke. This engine was found to be so satisfactory that 
it has been retained practically unchanged up to the present time, 
and its general features have been adopted, so far as possible, for 


* Machinery, March and June, 1909. 




















16 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


the vertical four-cylinder engines of the 30 H. P. machine. A number 
of original features were employed on this engine which have proved 
their value in actual practice. One of the most interesting of these is 
the cylinder construction, best seen in Fig. 9. This cylinder, which 
is a fine-grained gray iron .casting, has a flange near the forward 
end, which enters and fits a bored and faced seat in the frame. The 
copper water jacket slips over the cylinder, and is flanged to match 



Fig. 11. Planetary Transmission used on the Single-cylinder Engine 

its outer face. Both it and the cylinder are held in place by a ring 
which passes around the outside of the copper jacket, and is tight¬ 
ened down by the studs shown screwed into the frame. In this way 
the copper jacket forms its own gasket. The cylinder head or valve 
chamber is held in place by a hollow steel nut (or nipple, rather) 
which is threaded externally right- and left-hand, and screws into 



Fig. 12. The lO H. P. Engine of the Single-cylinder Car 

both the cylinder and the valve chamber. The upper end of the cop¬ 
per jacket is clamped between the two, and thus serves for a gasket 
at this joint also, forming the only packing needed. Parts are kept 
in alignment by a dowel, and suitable openings connect the jacket 
space of the cylinder and the head. Among the advantages of this 
construction over the usual cored jacket are lighter weight, greater 
water space, more uniform thickness of cylinder walls, facility in 




17 


MACHINES AND TOOLS 

cleaning the jacket space, elimination of trouble from freezing the 
cooling water, and low repair cost for broken parts. 

1 he exhaust valve is placed in the cylinder head with its axis ver¬ 
tical, and it is operated from the cam shaft by a push-rod and bell- 
o ank. The inlet valve is of the inverted type, located directly above 



Fig. 14. Right Side of the Engine, showing Carburetor, Commutator, etc. 

the exhaust valve. It is operated by a lever with a roller on its outer 
end which, in turn, is actuated by a push rod riding on a roller 
mounted on one arm of a short lever. The push-rod is connected 
with an eccentric on the cam shaft. The lever on which it rides is 
under the control of the driver, so that the timing of the valve and 






















18 


No. 5 9 —AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


the amount of lift may be varied according to the work required. 
The throttling is thus effected by the inlet valve gear. The carbu¬ 
retor (shown in Fig. 10) is formed in one piece with the inlet valve 
mechanism. As may be seen, the inrush of air lifts valve M and 
allows the escape of the oil, which falls into the wire mesh basket K, 
where it is vaporized. The lift of the valve may be regulated to give 
the desired richness of mixture. 

The motor frame is made in three parts—the frame proper, and 
the top and bottom plates. The main shaft, which is offset, is a 
nickel steel, center-crank forging, finished all over by grinding. It is 
carried in babbitt lined bronze bearings, fitted in bored and reamed 
seats in the motor frame. These are held in place by cap plates, 
which can be adjusted without opening the motor. The cam-shaft is 



Fig. 15. Front View of the Four-cylinder Engine 

carried in bronze bushings inserted in the bottom plate. This plate 
and the cam-shaft may be removed at any time without disturbing the 
crank-shaft. 

The transmission 'of the 10 H. P. machine is of the planetary type, 
providing for two speeds forward and a slow reverse. As shown in 
Fig. 11, the gearing is all enclosed in an oil-tight casing. On the 
high-speed forward gear the whole transmission revolves as a unit. 
The driving pinion is of 40-point carbon steel and is case-hardened, 
as are also the idler pinions, which have bronze bushings pressed 
into them after hardening, and run on hardened and ground pins 
pressed into the gear case. Power is transmitted to the rear axle 
sprocket by a Whitney roller chain. An assembled view of the engine 
is shown in Fig. 12. 

The later vertical four-cylinder engine for the 80 H. P. machine 
is shown in Figs. 13 to 19 inclusive. This engine has been built, as 





MACHINES AND TOOLS 


19 


far as practicable, on the lines of the horizontal machine. As may 
be seen in Fig. 17, the same arrangement is used for clamping together 
the cylinder, the copper jacket and the cylinder head, although a 
somewhat different joint is used at the lower end of the jacket. In 
this engine also the crank-shaft is offset; the construction of the crank 



Fig. 16. The Cadillac Steering Gear 



Fig. 17. The Cylinder and Piston 



Fig. 18. Selective Type Sliding Gear Transmission 

case and base is different, of course, as shown in Fig. 19. A leather¬ 
faced cone clutch in the fly-wheel transmits power to the sliding gear 
transmission (see Fig. 18) which gives three speeds forward and 
one reverse. The gears and shafts are of oil-treated chrome-nickel 
steel, and are carried on ball bearings. The gear case is oil-tight, as 
is also the universal joint housing and the rear axle casing. 

















20 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


The rear axle carries an oil-treated chrome-nickel steel bevel gear 
and pinion, and the gear mounts are adjustable for wear of the teeth. 
The steering gear (see Pig. 16) is of the worm and sector type, treated 
in the same ways as the transmission and differential gearing. 

Machines and Tools for Automobile Manufacture 

Upon first thought the design and construction of tools and jigs 
for automobile manufacture may not appear to present any problems 
radically different from those involved in the manufacture of any other 
power producing and transmitting machinery; but after a thorough 
consideration of the conditions under which a motor car necessarily 
operates, the importance of a standardized, interchangeable, simple 
and strong construction is realized. As one of the requirements of a 
car is maximum power with minimum weight, the use of nickel and 
other steel alloys is required, which, in turn, necessitates the use of 
high speed steel in the machine tools. As an automobile engine is 



Fig. 19. Top View of Motor Case and Crank-shaft 

necessarily a high-speed engine, the provisions for adjustment of 
wearing parts and the cheap replacement of them when worn out, are 
of primary importance. 

As the great majority of automobile owners are not mechanically 
inclined and wish the greatest amount of service with the least possi¬ 
ble attention to their cars, the necessity of simple and reliable con¬ 
struction is apparent; and, as the motor car is forced by road condi¬ 
tions to do its hardest work on the poorest roads (which are usually 
farthest from the best repair facilities), under which conditions break¬ 
ages are most likely to occur, the advantages of interchangeable con¬ 
struction, the parts of which are so designed that they can not be in¬ 
correctly assembled, are apparent, especially when road repairs must be 
made by men not thoroughly familiar with the construction of all 
cars. These are facts that the motor car designer must have seriously 
in mind, and which must reflect themselves to some extent in the tool 
design. 

It is the purpose of this chapter to show how these ideas are car¬ 
ried out in practice, in the factory of the Cadillac Motor Car Com¬ 
pany, and, while space permits showing only a few of the several 















MACHINES AND TOOLS 


21 


thousand special tools, jigs and fixtures, it is thought that those shown 
will iillustrate the care taken to secure absolute interchangeability 
and perfect alignment of parts. As the construction of the motor 
includes some very interesting tools, these together with some test¬ 
ings jigs are shown and described. 

Engine Frames 

As the engine frame is in two parts, divided horizontally at the 
shaft center, accurate milling and drilling is required. Heavy Brown 



Fig. 20. Milling Engine Frames 


& Sharpe, Cincinnati, and Leland & Faulconer machines are fitted 
with heavy jigs, and large inserted tooth cutters are used on this 
.work. Fig. 20 illustrates the L. & F. machine milling the top face 
of the engine frame where the cylinders bolt on. This machine is 
very satisfactory for manufacturing, as the low table permits rapid 
handling of work, and its heavy construction, large bearing surfaces 
and all geared feeds and speeds provide for heavy and rapid cutting. 

























22 No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

Fig. 21 shows the method of boring the seats for the cylinders in 
the engine frame. This operation follows that shown in Fig. 20. The 
cutter heads have a floating drive and are centered by the ground 
pilots entering inserted bushings in the jig bosses. The whole jig 
slides forward, and back against a stop to facilitate inserting and 
removing the work. 

Fig. 22 shows the lower half of the crank-case (shown in Fig. 19 
with crank-shaft in place) clamped in the jig for drilling 24 holes for 



Pig. 21. Machine for Boring Frames 


studs and cap-screws. The 24-spindle Baush machine drills these 
holes in about two minutes, including inserting and removing the 
work. A similar style of jig is provided for the upper half of the 
crank-case, which has 18 holes to be drilled in the lower face. 

Fig. 23 shows the jig provided for boring the cam-shaft bearing 
seats in the upper half of the crank-case. These seats are indicated 
by the letter A, and are a very close fit for the five bronze bearings 
which carry the cam-shaft. The work locates over the two large 





















MACHINES AND TOOLS 


23 


bosses in the center of the jig, and rests on hardened and ground 
plugs inserted in the base. The swing clamps shown bear directly 
over the plugs. The boring tool, which is driven by a face-plate fix¬ 
ture, is seen projecting through one of the guides. The B. & S. plug 
gage seen on the lathe carriage, allows only 0.002-inch variation in 
the size of the holes. A similar type of jig (not shown) is used for 
boring the main bearing seats in the lower half of the crank-case, and 



Fig. 22. Twenty-four-spindle Machine for Drilling the Frames 


an adjustable hand reamer with a very long pilot is used for finish¬ 
ing them. The variation in size allowed on the bearing bushings is 
only 0.0015 inch and only 0.001 inch on the shaft bearings. 


Cam-shaft 


Fig. 24 shows both the cam-shaft drilling and reaming jigs on the 
same machine table, for convenience. The drill jig (seen in front) 
is of steel with hardened bushings with an adjustable stop-screw in 
the end. This jig gives the correct position of the holes for the eight 


























24 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


cams and the drive geams. As the holes are to be reamed in pairs and 
each pair is 90 degrees from the others, the reaming jig is designed 
with a view to extreme accuracy. In operation the first hole reamed 



Fig 23. Fixture for Boring Cam-shaft Bearings in Engine Frame 



Fig. 24. Fixtures for Drilling and Reaming Cam-shafts 


is the one by which the drive gear (Fig. 15, page 18) is pinned on. 
The taper reamer is guided by the bushing in the clamping fixture at 
the right, and the collars are so adjusted as to ream the hole to the 





























25 


MACHINES AND TOOLS 

lequiied size. The shaft is then slipped through the square, hard¬ 
ened and-ground steel block seen at the left in the illustration, and 
a master pin is inserted. The block is then slipped along in the frame 
of the jig and clamped by the screws seen on top of the fixture as 
the various holes come under the reamer. The projecting block seen 
at the extreme right end of the jig, forms a rest for the cam-shaft as 
it is passed along. As the taper holes in the cam shaft, cams and 
cam-gears, must bear the correct relation to each other, a set of mas¬ 
ter pins is provided for testing the depth of the reaming. These are 
hardened and ground tool-steel pins having two fine lines 0.020 inch 
apart around them at the point where they project through the hole 
in either the shaft, the cam or the gear. As a variation of 0.001 inch 



Fig. 25. Boring Cylinders 


in the diameter of a standard taper pin hole permits the pin to enter 
0.040 inch deeper into the hole, the accuracy of this work can be 
realized when it is known that no hand reaming is required in assem¬ 
bling the cam-shaft. The cams are drilled and reamed in similar 
jigs, which, in all cases, locate the cams by the eccentric portions. 
The inlet cams are alike and interchangeable, as are also the exhaust 
cams. The cams are of selected steel, hardened and finished by grind¬ 
ing on the working surfaces in correct relation to the pin holes. 

Cylinders 

Fig. 25 illustrates the method of boring the cylinders in a double 
spindle Beaman & Smith machine, with a turn-table fixture whereby 
two cylinders may be changed while two others are being bored. As 
the cylinder castings are very uniform in size, the boring leaves the 
walls very uniform in thickness. After being bored and reamed, the 
cylinders pass to the testing bench where water pressure of 700 to 












26 'No. 59 —AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

800 pounds per square inch is applied to test them for leakage. Those 
passing the test are taken to the screw machine department and put 
on an expanding arbor in a large Potter & Johnston machine for fac¬ 
ing and tapping the top and turning the portion of the cylinder which 
enters into the crank-case of the motor. The machine and tools for 
these operations are seen in Fig. 26. The turret tools in the fore¬ 
ground are those used in roughing out and boring the upper end of 
the cylinder for the cylinder head nipple. The heavy overhanging 
turret tool finishes the flange on the cylinder for the copper water- 
jacket. The rear cross slide carries the tools for roughing this flange 
and also the flanges through which the studs pass for fastening the 
cylinders to the engine frame, while the forward cross-slide tools fin- 



Fig. 26. Turning Cylinders 


isli the stud flanges and a portion of the cylinder where • it enters 
the bored seat in the engine frame. 

The cylinders are finished by grinding in Brown & Sharpe and 
Heald machines. A heavy angle-plate fixture, bored and faced to a 
very close fit on the cylinder diameter, is fitted to the table of the 
machine as shown in Fig. 27. The cylinder is clamped to this fix¬ 
ture exactly as it is held later in the assembled motor. Cooling water 
is supplied to the outside of the cylinder, and the air tube seen at 
the extreme right conveys the particles of metal and emery to a suc¬ 
tion fan at the rear of the machine. The “Go” plug gage seen on the 
machine table, is 4 inches in diameter and the “Not Go” gage is 4.002 
inches in diameter. 

Pistons and Rings 

The second operation of roughing off the pistons in a Gridley auto¬ 
matic turret lathe is shown in Fig. 28. The first operation is not 















MACHINES AND TOOLS 


27 


shown, as it consists only in chucking and roughing off the outer 
diameter of the head end for about an inch to permit the steadying 
roll passing over the end. The upper roll has but a slight travel, as it 



Fig. 27. Grinding Cylinders 



Fig. 28. Turning Pistons 


forms a part of the end facing tool. The heavy turning tool is car¬ 
ried in the rear tool holder, which also carries another roller; this 
roller supports the piston against the side thrust on it, caused in cut¬ 
ting the ring grooves. The view shows the very heavy character of 








































28 


No. 5 9 —AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


the tools, and the provisions for adjustment. The piston is held by 
an internal draw-in fixture, thus permitting the turning tool to travel 
its entire length. The finish is by grinding in heavy Brown & Sharpe 
and Norton machines, as illustrated in Fig. 29. The greatest vari¬ 
ation in size permitted is 0.002 inch. A finishing cut is taken from the 
open end of the piston in a special reaming fixture just before grind¬ 
ing, which prevents any possible distortion of the piston due to 
changes in the metal after the open end has been machined. The pis¬ 
ton pin hole is bored in box jigs and 0.001 inch is left for hand ream¬ 
ing previous to assembling the piston and connecting-rod. A final 
light finishing cut is taken from the piston ring grooves after the 
piston is ground. 



Fig. 29. Grinding Pistons 


The piston rings are of a special close-grained iron mixture and 
are turned and bored on Gridley machines, and finished by grinding. 
The ring joint is the standard 45-degree angle joint, which has always 
given good results in practice. 

Connec ting-rods 

The connecting-rods are drop forgings of H-section, having a pressed- 
in bronze bushing bearing for the piston-pin, and a hinged cap carry¬ 
ing babbitt-lined bronze half-bushing bearings for the crank-pins. 
While the machining of the rods requires a set of very complete and 
accurate jigs and tools, limited space prevents their illustration. Two 
of the fixtures for testing the alignment of the assembled rods, how¬ 
ever, are shown in Figs. 30 and 31. Fig. 30 shows the method of 
locating the piston-pin bushing central with the crank-pin bearing, 
which is held in the hinged end of the rod by large brass dowels. 
A plug is placed between the half bearings, and the adjusting screw 














MACHINES AND TOOLS 


29 


tightened down sufficiently to hold them tightly in place. The piston- 
pin bushing having been pressed in approximately central and hand 
reamed, is then slipped on the ground arbor which is pressed into the 
casting and positively held by a large hexagon nut. The knurled nut 
A is then screwed on the outer end of the arbor, thus hojding the 
piston-pin bushing against a ground shoulder on the fixed arbor. The 
micrometer screw is then brought up until it touches the edge of the 
crank-pin bearing, a reading taken, and the screw backed away. The 
nut A is then loosened, the connecting-rod slipped off, turned over 
and replaced on the arbor and another reading of the micrometer 
screw is taken. The difference in the two readings thus indicates 
the amount the two bearings are out of line with each other. For 



Pig-. 30. Fixture for Testing the Relative Lateral 
Positions of Connecting-rod Bearings 


overcoming this variation, the two knurled nuts B and C are provided. 
Nut B is internally threaded to fit a threaded portion of nut A, and in 
use screws up against the face of the connecting-rod forging for press¬ 
ing it farther onto the bronze bushing. Nut C which is internally 
threaded to fit a portion of the fixed arbor, operates to move the rod 
forging in the opposite direction. When the rod is thus centralized, 
a dowel of brass tubing is put in, which prevents disalignment and 
also conveys oil to the piston-pin bearing. 

For testing the parallelism (both vertical and horizontal) of the 
rod bearings, the fixture shown in Fig. 31 is provided. In operation, 
two ground arbors which are tight-fits in the rod bearings, are in¬ 
serted. and the rod laid in the fixture as shown. A pair of flat springs 
A press the smaller arbor against the inserted hardened and ground 













30 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

plugs opposite them. A similar pair of plugs are seen at the other 
end of the fixture; between these and the arbor is inserted the taper 
strip seen in the foreground. The taper is such that the cross lines 
which are about y 8 . inch apart each give a reading to 0.001 inch. The 
two flat strips attached to the lower end of the fixture are so placed 
for convenience in reading any variation in the position of the taper 
strip. As all four horizontal surfaces on which the ends of both the 



Fig. 31. Fixture for Testing the Parallelism 
of Connecting-rod Bearings 


arbors lie are ground to the same plane, any “wind” in the connecting- 
rod is seen by the failure of all four points to touch at the same 
time. 

Bevel Gear Templet Milling- Machine 

A pair of bevel gears are used to drive the short vertical commu¬ 
tator shaft from the cam shaft of the motor, and as the relative posi¬ 
tions of the commutator to the cam-shaft and main shaft of the 
motor must be accurately maintained, the necessity of correctly cut 
and carefully mounted gears is apparent. For producing these gears, 
a specially designed machine is employed, which is shown in Fig. 32. 
The machine is one of the templet type, whose templet or form (seen 
on the arm at the top of the machine) is primarily developed by roll¬ 
ing contact with a rack. This produces a magnified tooth form which 
is mathematically correct, and even if it contained any errors these 
would be reduced in the actual work in the same proportion which 
the gear tooth bears to the form. Hence, very accurate bevel gears 











MACHINES AND TOOLS 


31 


ma> be cut on this type of machine, and a brief general description of 
its main features may be of especial interest. 

The machine consists of two principal parts: the work spindle and 
its driving and indexing mechanism, and the cutters with their driv¬ 
ing mechanism. The cutters are driven by round belts, at a high 
speed, and are mounted on geared spindles which are carried in two 
vertical slides, which, in operation, have a reciprocating motion on 



Fig-. 32. Bevel-gear Milling Machine of the Templet Type 


lines divergent from the cone center of the gear to be cut. The cut¬ 
ting edges of the cutters are thus always traveling along lines which 
become the clearance lines of the gear tooth. The gear blank is 
roughed out on a special gashing machine as the templet milling 
macnine is not intended for roughing. 

The work spindle is carried in the head, which has a working 
range of 75 degrees between the horizontal and vertical planes. This 
head is locked to the movable graduated quadrant, which is pivoted 
at a point coincident with the center of the gear. The work spindle 

























32 No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

has an end movement of several inches, for convenience in changing 
the gear blank, and has a draw-in arbor attached to the hand-wheel 
seen above the index plate, for locking the gear blank in position. 
The index plate is seen at the top of the work spindle. The index 
trip is set at the desired position on the rear slot of the stationary 
quadrant. In operation the large cam under the work spindle raises 
the pivoted quadrant to which the work spindle is locked, and grad¬ 
ually feeds the work forward between the two cutters, which are 
gradually forced to change their position by the action of the large 
tooth form entering between the two rolls on the cutter slide arms. 


Fjg. 33. Fixture for Testing the Accuracy of 
Commutator Contact Points 

The indexing is, of course, automatic, and occurs at the position of 
the cam shown in the engraving. This cam has, as shown, an edge 
consisting of a series of small steps, rather than a gradual curve, and 
is so geared to the cutter spindle mechanism that the work is fed 
into the cutters at the ends of the stroke of the cutter slides, rather 
than during a cut. The index mechanism shows careful thought in 
its design, in that the index pin enters the slots in the index plate 
in such a manner as to have no sliding contact on the master edge 
of the slot. An automatic trip stops the machine when the gear is 
finished. This machine is one of a series which was built by this 
company (then the Leland & Faulconer Manufacturing Company) in 
1898-1899, for producing either soft or hardened and ground bevel 
gears, the machine being designed to produce finished soft gears, or 
semi-finished gears for hardening. 





MACHINES AND TOOLS 33 

Commutator Testing- 

Pig. 33 shows a fixture employed for testing the accuracy of the 
spacing of the contact points of the commutator. This fixture con¬ 
sists of a central portion carrying the commutator shaft, and of an 
outer graduated steel disk movable on the central part of the fixture. 
In operation, a commutator is slipped on over the stationary shaft 
and the bearings adjusted. The commutator brush is then placed on 
the shaft and locked in place, leaving the commutator body free to 
be revolved. A battery and coil which are a part of the fixture, indi¬ 
cate the electrical contact by the buzzing of the coil. The pointer is 
then put in place and clamped, and the commutator turned until a 
contact is indicated. The large outer disk (about 18 inches in dia- 



Fig. 34. Turning- a Spherical King 


eter) is then turned around under the pointer until one of the 90 
degree graduations are directly under the pointer. The commutator 
and pointer are then turned to bring the other contacts to the brush, 
and their variation read on the large disk, which is graduated in 
degrees at four equi-distant points around its edge. The requirement 
is that the commutator contacts be spaced 90 degrees apart, and the 
variation allowed is only one-half a degree, as the relation of the 
firing to the piston and valve movements must be very exact. 

Fig. 34 illustrates a nice piece of screw machine work in the brass 
shop. The ring seen leaning against the machine is of bronze. The 
diameters of these rings range from 6.497 inches to 6.500 inches and 
the bore from 5.878 inches to 5.880 inches. The outside is spherical 
in shape, and the ring forms a part of the rear universal joint hous¬ 
ing which swivels on the rear axle driving shaft casing, and also slides 





34 .Vo. &—AUTOMOBILE MASUFACTURE 

in to compensate for the rear spring action. Slight variations in size 
and a fine finish are ne;-essary to make this point oil tight. A cas ing 
s seen in the machine, and a roughing cut is being taken £rom the out- 
siie. I: has already teen rough bored, enough metal being let: for 
a fine finishing cut to be taken after the outside is finished. The cast¬ 
ings have heavy flanges for inside chucking, so that little trouble is 
exrerienced by their springing after being parted. The il.ustration 
shows th- construction of the spherical turning tools, and two of the 
gag s used. 



CHAPTER III 


SYSTEM FOR THE RAPID ASSEMBLY OF 

MOTOR CARS* 

From a mere corner in the machine shop in the days when the 
automobile was built in lots of but two or three at a time, the assem¬ 
bling room has grown to such an extent that, in many factories where 
the output is large, it occupies an entire floor of the main building, 
and has come to be considered as one of the three or four most im¬ 
portant departments of a modern motor car factory. A corresponding 
increase in responsibility has attended the growth in size and impor¬ 
tance of the assembling room, and to-day, unless well managed and 
equipped with the most up-to-date devices for the convenient and 
rapid handling of parts, it can easily “eat up - ’ the profits on a whole 
year's output of low or medium-priced cars. Without requiring the 
services of an excessive number of men, it must take care of the 
parts from the machine shop and the parts-assembling room as they 
are turned out, and not allow a great number of finished pieces to 
accumulate at any time in the stock room. The work of assembling 
must also be done thoroughly, so that, when tested, the complete car 
need not be sent back for overhauling and readjustment of parts. In 
short, the assembling room must work in harmony with each of the 
other departments in doing its share .toward producing a car of 
maximum quality at minimum cost of production—and that share is by 
no means small. But not alone are the best systems and business 
management, proper interior arrangement and most up-to-date devices 
necessary, but the highest class of skilled mechanics must be em¬ 
ployed as well. A motor and transmission may be composed of the 
best of materials and have bestowed upon them the most skilled work¬ 
manship available, but unless they are placed together in the completed 
car with each shaft lined up, each bearing scraped and fitted and 
each gear in position to mesh properly, all this expensive material 
and labor may count for naught. The assembling room cannot, to any 
great extent, compensate for poor machining, but it can absolutely 
ruin the best products of the machine shop. 

That the leading automobile manufacturers have been brought to a 
realization of the importance of the use of the best systems, equip¬ 
ment and labor in their assembling rooms is particularly well exem¬ 
plified in the factory of the Chalmers-Detroit Motor Car Company at 
Detroit, Mich. Probably the most convincing proof of this statement 
will be found in the fact that, for the 3,000 complete cars turned out 
by this company last year, not more than 30 men were employed at 
any one time on the assembling room floor. More remarkable than 


* Machinery, October, 1909. 





No. 5 9 —AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


36 

this, however, is the high record established for a day’s work. In ten 
hours, the 30 men in this department assembled 35 complete cars! 
Of course this does not include the assembling of the small parts of 
the motor, transmission and rear axle, as these are taken care of in 
other departments, but when it is remembered that the chassis assem¬ 
bly does include the installation of all these parts in the frame, the 
adjustment of each to its new position, the attaching of all springs, 
wheels, running-boards, foot-rests, steering gear, and the wiring and 
piping of the motor, it will be realized that the system and equipment 
employed in this department must be perfect in every respect, in 
order to turn out this amount of completed work. 

The headquarters of the assembling department may be said to 
lie in the finished stock room, which occupies a large section of the 
floor of the main factory on which the assembling room proper is 
located. To this finished stock room come all finished parts such as 
nuts, bolts, screws, front axles, springs, and wheels, and the pre¬ 
viously assembled motors, transmissions, steering gears, and rear 
axles. These are all classified and placed by themselves, the smaller 
parts being kept in bins which extend in long rows down one end of 
the room. Lists pasted in conspicuous places along these bins show 
the exact number of each size and kind cf bolts, nuts and other pieces 
required for the various models of cars made here, and hand trucks 
having bodies divided into compartments are drawn down past the 
bins and filled with the necessary number of small parts for two cars. 
In the larger divisions of the truck box or body are placed the axles, 
steering gear, running boards, foot rests, and other bulky parts of the 
car. Each truck is filled with a sufficient number of the proper parts 
for the complete assembly of two cars and is then rolled into the 
assembling room, adjoining the stock room, and placed between two 
pressed steel frames which form the foundations, as it were, of the 
two chassis to be assembled. Having received the required number 
of parts of the proper kind, three men now devote their entire time 
to assembling the two chassis—and it is here that the advantages of 
“team work” are exhibited. Having become accustomed to this method 
of assembling, each man knows just what he is to do, and always has 
the other chassis at hand to which he can turn his attention when he 
is liable to interfere with the work of his two companions. It is 
highly specialized work, each team of three men devoting their w'hole 
time and energy to the installation and adjustment of the various 
parts of two cars until they are ready for the road test. As the three 
men finish the first tw'o chassis, another truck is brought in contain¬ 
ing parts for two additional cars, and the team then devotes its atten¬ 
tion to cars three and four. The motors are not included in the quota 
of parts comprising the truck load, but are carried in separately by 
differential hoists which travel on overhead tracks and pass in two 
lines down the sides of the assembling room in front of the two row's 
of chassis. When the frame is ready for the installation of its motor, 
the latter is lowered in place. This system renders each cap independ¬ 
ent of the stock room after the truck load of parts has been received, 


ASSEMBLING 


37 

















































38 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

and the work bench, vise and kit of tools near every chassis reduce 
to a minimum the number of steps necessary to be taken by each 
workman. 

The arrangement of the rests for holding the frames rigidly in place 
is very ingenious and entirely does away with the use of saw-horses 
or other movable and bulky supports. There are four of these sup¬ 
ports for each frame, as shown in Fig. 35, and when not in use, one or 
all may be let down into the floor. Each of these supports consists 
merely of a vertical iron rod, bent at right angles at its upper end 
and forged into the shape of a hook. A corner of the frame rests 
on this horizontal portion of the rod, while the hooked-shaped ends 
of the two opposite supports prevent lateral motion in either direc- 



Fig. 36. View of Stock Room, showing Trucks in which Parts are taken 

to the Assembling Room 


tion. Each rod is supported by a pin passing through it at the proper 
distance from the end, which rests across the top of the base-plate 
which is bolted to the floor and through which the end of the rod 
passes. By giving a partial turn to the rod, the pin is allowed to pass 
through a slot in the base-plate, and the whole support is thus dropped 
until its top is flush with the floor. In order that the supports may 
accommodate themselves to various lengths'of frames, the rear pair 
of every set of four base-plates is made with four sets of holes, in 
any of which the rods may be placed. The sets of supports are placed 
at such intervals along the floor that sufficient space between the frames 
is allowed to enable two teams of men to work on adjoining cars with¬ 
out interference. While it may seem a small matter, the facility with 
which these supports may be put in place, adjusted or removed from 
the floor helps to make possible, in no uncertain degree, the record 
for the rapid assembly of cars of which this factory can boast. 































ASSEMBLING 


ay 

Although not a part of the assembling room proper, the department 
in which the pressed-steel frames of channel-section are prepared for 
the chassis, has an important part in facilitating quick assembling. 
When the frames arrive at the factory, forty or fifty holes must be 
drilled for the various parts which are to be attached, such as the 
gear shift, brake levers and their supports, the motor, transmission, 
running boards, fenders, lamp brackets, springs, and the like. Most 
of these, with the exception of the motor and transmission, are riv¬ 
eted in place before the frames reach the assembling room. These 
operations are performed in the frame riveting room, which contains 
several unique and ingenious arrangements that, so far as efficiency 
is concerned, bring this department on a par with the assembling 



Fig-. 37. Room in which the Fiames are drilled and riveted by 

Pneumatic Tools 


room. The frame is first placed on a set of supports similar to those 
used in the assembling room, except that a tension rod and turn- 
buckle connect both pair of rods for the purpose of holding the frame 
more rigidly in place. A single track over this set of supports car¬ 
ries a differential hoist, from which is suspended a large jig (see Fig. 
37) containing a guide hole corresponding to every hole necessary to be 
drilled 'in the sub-frame, which carries the motor and transmission. 
This jig is clamped securely in place and the holes drilled by means 
of pneumatic drills connected to flexible piping. When all the holes 
are drilled in this manner, the frame is removed to another set of 
supports a few feet distant, where it is held rigidly in place in the 
same manner as that before described. Above this second set of sup¬ 
ports is an oval track of the same length and width as the frame. 
From the traveler on this track is suspended a cable terminating in a 
single pulley through which passes a chain. On one end of this 












40 


No. 59 —AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


chain is a heavy, penumatic riveter, which is counterbalanced by an 
iron weight attached to the other end of the chain. This enables the 
tool to be placed at any height desired without unnecessary exertion. 
A small forge (not shown in the illustration) in one corner of this 
room heats the rivets before they are driven into the frame. By 
means of the oval track and pulley, any vertical or horizontal plane 
bounded by the frame may be reached with the riveter, and four or 
five men in this department are usually able to keep the assembling 
room supplied with the required number of frames. After being fin¬ 
ished in this department, however, the frames in all cases are taken 
directly to the finished stock room, from which they are drawn out 
to the assembling room as needed. This stock room, in facts, acts as 
a sort of clearing house for the whole factory, and no part ever 
reaches the complete car until it has been inspected, checked and en¬ 
tered in the stock room records. 

The keynote of this system is specialization. Every man knows 
what he has to do—and he does it. There is no overlapping of de¬ 
partments. It is scarcely ever necessary for the men in the assem¬ 
bling room to step into the stock room, and the men in the stock room 
are supposed to keep the men in the assembling department supplied 
with the necessary parts for the cars that have been ordered to be 
finished that day. Each team in the assembling room follows its two 
cars through until they are ready for the road test, and it is then easy 
to place the responsibility for any defect where it belongs. When 
this system is supplemented with such labor and space saving devices 
as are used in the assembling and frame riveting rooms, and when, 
gt the head of it all is able, efficient and experienced management, one 
can begin to understand the conditions which allow the immense in¬ 
crease in production and the reduction in cost of the -American-made 
motor car of to-day. 


CHAPTER IV 



TREATMENT OF GEARS FOR AUTOMOBILES* 

There is probably no part of an automobile that is subjected to 
nioie use or greater abuse than the transmission. Carrying as it does 
practically all of the power developed by the motor, and, receiving at 
the hands of a careless driver the strains imparted by a suddenly 


Fig. 38. Chamfering the Teeth of Spur Gears in the Winton Factory 

applied load or g too rapid shifting of the speeds, it is small wonder 
that the gears of the transmission must be made of the highest grade 
of materials, and that the care and workmanship bestowed upon each 
must be of the best. The ordinary automobile transmission consists 
of a series of different sizes of spur gears mounted on two parallel 

* Machinery, October, 1009. 


IfAUMtftrNy 

_ 




















42 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


shafts with means for sliding the gears on one shaft into mesh with 
those on the other, as desired. In this manner various speed ratios 
are transmitted from the motor to the main driving shaft, although 
on the majority of automobiles the high speed drives the car direct, 
without the interposition of any of the gears of the transmission. 

As a saving in weight is an important factor to be considered in 
the design of a transmission, the gears must be made as small as 
possible and yet be sufficiently strong to carry suddenly-applied loads 
with no attendant danger of breaking. Owing to the methods by 
which the speeds are changed, and the clashing and “bruising” which 
take place when the gears are shifted, the transmission must also be 
made of a material which is hard as well as tough. Different kinds 
of steel have been used and each has been treated by various methods 
in an effort to discover the perfect gear material, but although this 



Fig. 39. Gear Case-hardening Room in the Premier Factory 


is yet to be found, the transmission of a modern, well-made automo¬ 
bile, when intelligently handled, will last nearly as long as the car 
itself. Of the various kinds of carbon steel which have been em¬ 
ployed for transmission gears, nickel, chrome-nickel and silico-man- 
ganese seem to have more adherents among the leading builders than 
any other materials. In most factories the gears are case-hardened 
after being cut, and in this manner the combination of toughness 
with the desired hard surface is obtained. Gears which have been 
treated in this way have been taken out of cars after having been 
run many thousands of miles, and in some instances, the original tool 
marks on the faces of the teeth were still visible. 

Methods employed for cutting gears in automobile factories do not 
differ in any essential features from those used in any well-equipped 
machine shop or manufacturing concern. Most of the automobile 
makers purchase their transmission gear blanks outside and cut and 
finish them in the factory. Many of these blanks of special steel are 












TREATMENT OF GEARS 


43 


imported from France, but a few of the leading factories have labora¬ 
tories of their own in which experiments on high-quality materials 
for transmission purposes are continually in progress. Six or seven 
spur gear blanks of the same size are generally placed on the man¬ 
drel of the cutter at once. A continous cut extending throughout the 
width of all these blanks is then taken for each tooth, and in this 
manner six or seven gears are finished at once and are made abso¬ 
lutely uniform. 

After the teeth have been cut, the gears are taken to the heat treat¬ 
ing room to be case-hardened. In the Middle West, and a few other 
sections, many of the case-hardening ovens are heated by natural gas 
obtained from near-by wells. In the Maxwell factory, at Newcastle, 
Indiana, a special machine has been installed for the manufacture 
of gas from “distillate”—a hydro-carbon obtained from the oil refin¬ 
eries. This machine is set up in the power house connected with the 
factory, and the gas is stored in a tank located in the same building. 
It is conducted from here to the heat-treating ovens in which it is 
used for case-hardening, tempering and annealing. Still another 
method for obtaining heat for the ovens is in use at the Ford fac¬ 
tory, in Detroit. Petroleum, or crude oil, is vaporized and forced by 
air pressure into a series of special burners located under the ovens. 
By regulating the amount of air or vapor or both, the ovens can be 
kept at a uniform temperature, or the amount of heat generated may 
be varied at will between almost any limits. The temperatures of 
the ovens are indicated by an electric pyrometer connected with each, 
and pieces to be case-hardened are kept at a heat of 1,600 degrees F. 
for a length of time which depends on the depth below the surface to 
which it is desired to carry the treatment. 

In several factories the final operation bestowed upon the gear, 
before assembly in the transmission or the motor, is the sand blast 
which serves to scour off any roughness or stains which may have been 
left on the surface during the cutting or the heat treatment. In the 
National factory, at Indianapolis, this operation is conducted in a small 
building separated from the remainder of the shop. The sand is kept 
in a bin in one corner and is sucked up by a centrifugal blower and 
forced by the air pressure through a pipe which terminates in a noz¬ 
zle. The sand, being forced out at high velocity by the air pressure, 
may be directed at all parts of the pieces to be cleaned. This is one 
of the most efficient methods of polishing and finishing a gear and 
does not injure the hard metal surface in any way. 

As silence of operation of all moving parts is one of the principal 
requisites for a motor car of to-day, it is necessary that the teeth of 
all gears shall be made to mesh perfectly and smoothly with all of 
those on the other gears with which they come in contact. In order 
to obtain silence of operation, the gears are run with each other for 
some time and each tooth is worn to a more perfect fit. The first few 
weeks of operation by the, customer would wear the gears in properly, 
but, in order to produce a perfect car, this is done before it leaves 


44 


No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 


the factory. Most of this “running in” of the gears can be accom¬ 
plished by the thorough road test to which the whole car is subjected 
before leaving the shop, but many of the leading factories supplement 
this with additional methods for obtaining the required wear on the 
transmission. A special frame is used in the Marmon factory, in 
Indianapolis (see Fig. 40), in which the transmission, driving shaft, 
differential, and rear axle and wheels are set up. An idler and a 
driving pulley, with a belt shifter, are attached to the front end of 
the transmission shaft and connected by belt to a countershaft driven 
from the main line shafting. When the power is applied and the dif¬ 
ferent speeds of the transmission are thrown into mesh by the shift¬ 
ing lever, every gear of the whole car, with the exception of those 



Pig. 40. Running- in the Transmission and Differential Gears in 

the Marmon Factory 


used on the motor, will be set in motion. The gears of the engine are 
worn in w^hen it is operated under belt pow r er before installation in 
the chassis. Somewhat the same method is pursued in the Packard 
factory, in Detroit, the only difference between the two being that 
here, instead of allowing the wheels to run free, a brake is attached 
to the end of the driving shaft by means of which a variable load 
may be applied to the gears in mesh. A section of the testing room 
is devoted to this purpose, and as the transmission and rear axle are 
assembled, they are brought in, placed on special frames provided for 
the purpose and connected by belts to the overhead shafting. As the 
gears of the transmission and differential are run in, the loads are 
increased until all are worn perfectly smooth. 

Before their final installation in the motor and transmission, all 
of the spur gears for the Wintcn cars, made in Cleveland, are set up 





TREATMENT OF GEARS 


45 


in a special case and run in under belt power. The bearings in these 
special cases are set at the proper distances apart to accommodate the 
various gears of a train, thus wearing in the gears so that all of those 
for similar parts are absolutely interchangeable. The case is made 
oil tight and a mixture of finely powdered emery and lubricating oil 
is fed through an opening in the top so that this grinding material 
will come in contact with all the teeth of the gears in mesh in the 
train. This grinding is continued until each tooth has been worn 
perfectly smooth and to an accurate fit with the teeth of the other 
gears with which it comes in mesh. For the gears used in the front 
of the motor to drive the cam, pump and magneto shafts—gears which 
always occupy the same relative position in regard to each other— 
a tooth of each is marked when in the grinding case with the corre¬ 
sponding teeth of the others with which it meshes. This is done so 



Fig. 41. Preliminary Run of Engine and Transmission to wear in the Parts 


that each gear of the train may set up in the motor in the same corre¬ 
sponding position as that occupied while being worn to a perfect fit 
with the others in the case. It is evident that every tooth cannot be 
of exactly the same size and shape, and if each tooth is allowed to 
mesh with those with w r hich it came in contact while being ground, 
more perfect rolling contact will take place and less friction and 
noise will result. The marks made on the gears are also useful for 
timing the magneto and valve cam shafts when an occasion arises 
necessitating the removal' of any of these parts from the motor. Of 
course, it is impossible to- carry this practice to the transmission, for 
most of the gears on one shaft revolve independently of those on the 
other, and it is very seldom that the same teeth of two gears will 
come into mesh on succeeding occasions. This practice, however, may 
be applied to the bevel gears of the driving shaft and rear axle and 
the pinions of the differential. As a further means of wearing the 
gears of the transmission to a perfect fit, the motor, transmission and 
driving shaft are installed in the chassis as shown in Fig. 41, and 








46 No. 59—AUTOMOBILE MANUFACTURE 

the motor is run while the various speeds of the transmission are 
thrown into mesh in order to wear in every gear thoroughly. During 
this run an electric dynamometer, by means of which a variable load 
may- be applied, is connected to the end of the driving shaft. 

An ingenious device for testing the accuracy of gears is used in the 
factory of the Grabowsky Power Wagon Co., of Detroit. This consists 
of a standard having three pins or bearings set in it on which the 
gears of the transmission are placed as shown in Fig. 42, thus form¬ 
ing a replica of the planetary transmission as used in the car. The 
middle upright bearing is stationary while each of the other two is 
movable in a horizontal direction and is connected to a micrometer 
at either end of the base of the instrument. A master gear is set 
on one of these bearings, while the pinions to be tested are placed 

on the other two. When the two movable bearings have been so 

• 



Fig-. 42. Device for Testing the Accuracy of Gears 


adjusted that all of the gears mesh perfectly, the readings of the 
two micrometers may be observed and the amount, in thousandths 
of an inch, by which the gears are “off” may thus be determined accu¬ 
rately. Certain limits of variation are necessarily allowed, but if any 
gear is below one or above the other, it is thrown out. Inasmuch as 
the distance between the centers of the gears must be constant in the 
transmission case, this instrument is useful in determining just what 
gears are acceptable without the necessity of installing them in the 
case. 

Many of the gears used in the forward end of the motor for driving 
the cam, pump and magneto shafts are made of manganese-bronze. 
The Premier car, however, made in Indianapolis, employs a laminated 
gear for the magneto shaft, built up of alternate layers of bronze and 
fiber. These layers are pinned firmly together and the gear is then 
cut by the usual methods. This makes an exceedingly quiet-running 
gear, as the layers of fiber or rawhide cushion the impact of the teeth 
as they meet, and the whirring or grinding sound familiar in many 










TREATMENT OF GEARS 


47 


all-metal gears is practically eliminated. It has been found by means 
of a series of exhaustive tests conducted in this factory that the silent 
running of this gear is brought about by a slight rounding or “bulg¬ 
ing” of the face of the rawhide sections caused by the absorption of 
the lubricating oil in the pores of the fiber and the pressure against 
its sides. This, as mentioned above, effectually cushions the impact 
of the teeth, but if this bulge becomes too great, the teeth will not 
mesh properly, there will be a tendency to “jam” and more friction 
will be set up than would be the case were an all-metal gear used. 
Of course the wider these fiber sections are, the greater will be the 
bulge to each, and it has been found as a result of these experiments 
that laminated gears composed of layers of rawhide about y s of an 
inch thick, alternating with bronze disks of the same dimensions, 

give the best service for this purpose. When sections of this thick- 

• 

ness are used, a sufficient bulge is formed to cushion the impact satis¬ 
factorily, and yet this is not great enough to change the shape of the 
teeth materially. These experiments are still in progress at the fac¬ 
tory in question in order the more accurately to determine other facts 
and figures concerning the best form of laminated gears, and this is 
only one of the many instances which give evidence to the fact that 
the American motor car manufacturer is now fully awake to the im¬ 
portance of paying attention to the most minute details of design. 


V 


V \Q r 1910 




























































< 


No. 22. Calculation of Elements of Machine Design. —Factor of Safety; 
Strength of Bolts; Riveted Joints; Keys and Key ways; Toggle-joints. 

No. 23. Theory of Crane Design— Jib Cranes; Calculation of Shaft, Gears, 
and Bearings; Force Required to Move Crane Trblleys, etc. 

No. 24. Examples of Calculating Designs. —Charts in Designing; Punch 
and Riveter Frames; Shear Frames; Billet and Bar Passes; etc. 

No. 25. Deep Hole Drilling. —Methods of Drilling; Construction of Drills. 
No. 26. Modern Punch and Die Construction. —'Construction and Use of 
Sub-press Dies; Modern Blanking Die Construction; Drawing and Forming Dies. 
No. 27. Locomotive Design, Part I.—Boilers, Cylinders, Pipes and Pistons. 
No. 28. Locomotive Design, Part II.—Stephenson Valve Motion; Theory, 
Calculation and Design of Valve Motion; The Walschaerts Valve Motion. 

No. 29. Locomotive Design, Part III.—Smokebox; Exhaust Pipe; Frames; 
Cross-heads; Guide Bars; Connecting-rods; Crank-pins; Axles; Driving-wheels. 
No. 30. Locomotive Design, Part IV.—Springs, Trucks, Cab and Tender. 
No. 31. Screw Thread Tools and Gages. 

No. 32. Screw" Thread Cutting. —Change Gears; Thread Tools; Kinks. 

No. 33. Systems and Practice of the Drafting-Room. 

No. 34. Care and Repair of Dynamos and Motors. 

No. 35. Tables and Formulas for Shop and Drafting-Room. —The Use of 
Formulas; Solution of . Triangles; Strength of Materials; Gearing; Screw 
Threads; Tap Drills; Drill Sizes; Tapers; Keys; Jig Bushings, etc. 

No. 36. Iron and Steel. —Principles of Manufacture and Treatment. 

No. 37. Bevel Gearing. —Rules and Formulas; Examples of Calculation; 
Tooth Outlines; Strength and Durability; Design; Methods of Cutting Teeth. 

No. 38. Grinding and Lapping. —Grinding and Grinding Machines; Disk 
Grinders; Bursting of Emery Wheels; Kinks; Lapping Flat Work and Gages. 
No. 39. Fans, Ventilation and Heating. —Fans; Heaters; Shop Heating. 
No. 40. Fly-Wheels. —Their Purpose, Calculation and Design. 

No. 41. Jigs and Fixtures, Part I.—Principles of Jig and Fixture Design; 
Drill and Boring Jig Bushings; Locating Points; Clamping Devices. 

No. 42. Jigs and Fixtures, Part II.—Open and Closed Drill Jigs. 

No. 43. Jigs and Fixtures, Part III.—Boring and Milling Fixtures. 

No. 44. Machine Blacksmithing. —Systems, Tools and Machines used. 

No. 45. Drop Forging. —Lay-out of Plant; Methods of Drop Forging; Dies. 
No. 46. Hardening and Tempering. —Hardening Plants; Treating High- 
Speed Steel; Hardening Gages; Case-hardening; Hardening Kinks. 

No. 47. Electric Over-Head Cranes. —Design and Calculation. 

No. 48. Files and Filing. —Types of Files; Using and Making Files. 

No. 49. Girders for Electric Overhead Cranes. 

No. 50. Principles and Practice of Assembling Machine Tools, Part I. 

No. 51. Principles and Practice of Assembling Machine Tools, Part II. 
No. 52. Advanced Shop Arithmetic for the Machinist. 

No. 53. Use of Logarithms, and Logarithmic Tables. 

No. 54. Solution of Triangles, Part I.—Methods, Rules and Examples. 
No. 55. Solution of Triangles, Part II.—Tables of Natural Functions. 

No. 56. Ball Bearings— Principles of Design and Construction. 

No. 57. Metal Spinning. —Machines, Tools and Methods Used. 

No. 58. Helical and Elliptic Springs. —Calculation and Design. 

No. 59. Machines, Tools and Methods of Automobile Manufacture. 

No. 60. Construction and Manufacture of Automobiles. 

The Industrial Press, Publishers of Machinery 
49-55 Lafayette Street s #SE 1SST New York City, U.S.A. 










































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